Well-being captures the happiness of individuals. Happier workers are often more productive, and a healthy economy can improve the well-being of residents. Measuring well-being is a complex process, and the well-being of populations varies tremendously across the United States.

24/7 Wall St. reviewed polling company Gallup’s 2015 Healthways Well-Being Index, which measures the well-being of Americans in each metropolitan statistical area based on interviews conducted over the last two years. The index incorporates a range of metrics grouped into five essential categories: the purpose, social, financial, community, and physical elements of well-being. We examined the metro areas with the highest and lowest scores alongside a range of other social and economic measures.

In an interview with 24/7 Wall St., Dan Witters, research director at Gallup-Healthways Well-Being Index, said, “Cities are good for well-being.” There is a tradeoff, however. Largely due to the high density of urban areas, residents are more vulnerable to disease and tend to feel less secure compared to their counterparts in more rural areas. While, on the whole, cities are perhaps better places to find happiness, some are far better than others.

Click here to see the happiest cities in America.

Click here to see the most miserable cities in America.

Residents of the Naples-Immokalee-Marco Island metro area in Florida and of the Salinas, California area are tied as the happiest in the United States. Charleston, West Virginia, residents, on the other hand, have the lowest well-being score.

Gallup’s index is based primarily on subjective survey measures. Self-assessments of well-being and the underlying social and economic outcomes are not necessarily in perfect alignment, but they are very closely tied to one another. “You absolutely find very robust relationships between subjective well-being the way we measure it, and these other more objectively derived statistics that come from government agencies,” Witters said.

The cities with the lowest well-being tend to have higher unemployment rates, lower incomes, and worse health outcomes, while the opposite tend to be true in the cities with the highest well-being.

Median household incomes exceed the national median of $53,657 in 18 of the 25 cities with the highest well-being scores. At the other end, in all but one of the 25 cities with the lowest well-being scores median household incomes are below average.

The relationship between well-being and these more objective factors is a two-way street. Witters explained that businesses, for example, benefit from happier employees, while businesses with unhappy employees often incur unseen costs. People with high well-being are less likely to miss work and less likely to search for other jobs and leave — by choice, or involuntarily. Happier workers also have fewer accidents on the job and utilize less health care, Witters noted.

Health is another major component of well-being. One of the most important healthy behaviors common among happy individuals, according to Witters, is going to the dentist. In areas with the highest well-being scores, dentists are far more concentrated than in low well-being metro areas. Oral health is among the many factors contributing to good health.

To determine the happiest and most miserable cities, 24/7 Wall St. used the Gallup-Healthways Well-being Index. Gallup’s results are based on nearly 354,000 telephone interviews conducted between January 2014 and December 2015. To supplement each city’s index score, we considered income and poverty statistics from the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2014 American Community Survey (ACS). Also from the ACS, we included the share of households that receive food stamps, educational attainment rates, and the share of the population without health insurance. Violent crime rates came from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and are as of 2014. From the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), we looked at unemployment rates for January 2016, the most recent rates available for metropolitan areas. Regional price parity — a proxy for the cost of living in each area — is from the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) and is as of 2013. All other data were aggregated from the county level using data from County Health Rankings & Roadmaps, a Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute joint program.

These are the nation’s happiest and most miserable cities.

The Happiest Cities in America

25. Visalia-Porterville, CA
> Poverty rate: 28.6%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 12.3%
> Adult obesity rate: 29.5%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 421.6

The Visalia-Porterville metro area lags behind much of the country in several important economic measures. More than one in four area residents live below the poverty line, a larger share than in all but a handful of other U.S. metro areas. Additionally, the city’s 12.3% unemployment rate is more than double the 5.5% national rate. Despite a flagging economy, Visalia-Porterville residents report an especially high degree of well-being. A particularly young city, only 10.3% of area residents are 65 and older, one of the smallest shares in the country. Young people are far more likely to be in good physical health than the elderly, and physical well-being can be crucial to personal happiness.

24. Port St. Lucie, FL
> Poverty rate: 15.3%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.5%
> Adult obesity rate: 25.4%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 331.3

Ranking as one of the happiest cities in the United States, it is perhaps no surprise that Port St. Lucie experienced one of the largest net migrations of any metro area in the country. Over 32,000 more people moved to Port St. Lucie than left over the past five years. Physical well-being is crucial to personal happiness, and Port St. Lucie is well equipped to support healthy lifestyles. More than 92% of the metro population has adequate access to places for physical activity such as parks and recreation centers, a considerably larger share than the 84% of Americans with adequate access.

Other factors likely play into Port St. Lucie resident’s strong sense of well-being. For some, Florida is an ideal retirement state due to the relatively low taxes and warm climate, and Port St. Lucie’s population is one of the oldest in the country. Roughly one-quarter of metro area residents are 65 and older.

23. Colorado Springs, CO
> Poverty rate: 12.0%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 3.8%
> Adult obesity rate: 21.3%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 385.8

While money does not buy happiness, financial insecurity can greatly reduce quality of life and personal happiness. Colorado Springs residents are more likely to be financially secure than most Americans as a typical area household earns $59,441 annually, roughly $6,000 more than the typical American household. Higher incomes in the area have led to a relatively low poverty rate of 12.0%, considerably less than the 15.5% share of Americans living in poverty.

Like many of the happiest U.S. cities, Colorado Springs has been attracting new residents in recent years. In the past five years, the metro area’s population expanded by 23,500 due to migration alone.

22. Asheville, NC
> Poverty rate: 12.6%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 4.8%
> Adult obesity rate: 23.8%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 205.6

A high prevalence of violent crime can detract from an individual’s sense of community and his or her personal happiness, and Asheville’s violent crime rate is among the lowest in the country. Only 205.6 violent crimes are reported for every 100,000 metro area residents a year, far fewer than the corresponding national rate of 366 incidents per 100,000. Asheville residents are also more likely to be financially secure than most Americans. While incomes in the city tend to be lower than they are across the country, a dollar goes considerably further in Asheville than in much of the United States. The average cost of goods and services in Asheville is 7.8% less than it is nationwide. A lower cost of living likely contributes to lower poverty rates. Only 12.6% of metro area residents are impoverished, a smaller share than the 15.5% of Americans living in poverty.

21. San Diego-Carlsbad, CA
> Poverty rate: 14.7%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 4.7%
> Adult obesity rate: 20.2%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 325.2

Strong familial connections can be an important contributor to personal happiness. In the San Diego metro area, 29.2% of children live in single parent households, a smaller share than most metro areas and considerably smaller than the 34.0% corresponding national figure. Physical well-being is also often a strong contributor to personal happiness, and the San Diego metro area is well equipped to support healthy lifestyles. More than 96% of metro area residents have access to parks and recreation centers, a considerably larger share than the 84% of Americans with such access. With greater access, San Diego residents are far more likely to be physically active than the typical American. More than 85% of area adults participate in leisure time physical activity compared to only 77% of American adults.

20. San Antonio-New Braunfels, TX
> Poverty rate: 16.7%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 3.7%
> Adult obesity rate: 28.5%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 404.9

In Greater San Antonio, residents are happy, healthy, and motivated. Just 3.7% of the metro area’s workforce is unemployed, which may help to contribute to the strong sense of purpose reported by area residents. San Antonio-New Braunfels is located near the Mexican border and has one of the warmer climates in the country. The environment is clean overall — the average 8.5 micrograms of particulate matter per cubic meter found in San Antonio’s air is one of the lower instances of pollution of any U.S. metro area. Perhaps as a result, 78.5% of area adults exercise regularly, a higher share than the 77.0% of adults who do nationwide.

San Antonio’s favorable environment has been attracting many new residents over the past few years. From 2010 to 2015, a net total of 152,107 new residents moved to San Antonio-New Braunfels, one of the largest net migrations of any U.S. metro area in that time.

19. Cape Coral-Fort Myers, FL
> Poverty rate: 16.3%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 4.7%
> Adult obesity rate: 25.5%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 439.4

For a variety of reasons, Florida is an ideal state for many American retirees. In Cape Coral-Fort Myers, one of the happiest cities in the country, more than one-quarter of the population is older than 64 years of age, a larger share than in all but a handful of other U.S. metro areas. In recent years, the metro area has become an especially popular destination for those relocating. Due to migration alone, the area’s’ population has grown by nearly 82,000 in the past five years, one of the largest such expansions anywhere in the country.

Metro area residents have many reasons to be happy. Unemployment and violent crimes are less common in Cape Coral-Fort Myers than across the state, and the average cost of goods and services in the metro area is lower than it is across the state and the country.

18. Ann Arbor, MI
> Poverty rate: 14.5%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 2.9%
> Adult obesity rate: 23.3%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 285.0

Home to the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor is one of many college towns amongst the happiest metro areas in the country. According to figures published by the university, the system has created over 9,000 jobs in Ann Arbor since 2001 and has helped launch more than 100 companies, about 60% of which have stayed in the metro area. Perhaps as a result, Ann Arbor’s 2.9% unemployment rate is the fifth lowest of U.S. cities. Similarly, 53.0% of area adults have at least a bachelor’s degree, the third highest educational attainment rate in the country.

The university system also helps provide quality medical care to the Ann Arbor metro area. For every 100,000 people in the city, there are 173 primary care physicians and 155 dentists, each the second highest such coverage ratio in the country.

17. Austin-Round Rock, TX
> Poverty rate: 15.1%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 3.2%
> Adult obesity rate: 23.3%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 290.9

Home to University of Texas at Austin, the Austin-Round Rock metro area’s population is one of the youngest in the country. Less than 10% of Austin’s residents are 65 years and older. As is the case in many of country’s happiest metro areas, people have been flocking to Austin in recent years. The metro area is now home to roughly 192,900 more people than in April 2010 due to migration alone. Having a strong sense of purpose and financial security are important to personal happiness, and the area’s low unemployment rate likely contributes to both. Only 2.9% of the Austin-Red Rock’s workforce is in need a of a job, one of the lowest jobless rates in the country and considerably lower than the 5.3% national unemployment rate.

16. Oxnard-Thousand Oaks-Ventura, CA
> Poverty rate: 11.3%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.3%
> Adult obesity rate: 20.6%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 222.9

Financial instability can greatly detract from personal happiness. In the Oxnard-Thousand Oaks-Ventura metro area, one of the happiest in the country, the typical household earns $75,449 a year, over $20,000 more than the typical American household. With a higher median income, poverty is far less common in the Oxnard metro area than it is across the country. Only 11.3% of area residents live below the poverty line compared to the 15.5% national poverty rate.

Like many of the happiest metro areas in the country, Oxnard-Thousand Oaks-Ventura is relatively safe. There are 222.9 violent crimes annually for every 100,000 area residents, far fewer than the national rate of 365.5 incidents per 100,000 people.

15. San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara, CA
> Poverty rate: 8.7%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 3.9%
> Adult obesity rate: 19.6%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 249.8

Residents of the San Jose metro area are some of the healthiest and wealthiest people in the country. The typical area household makes $96,481 a year, the most of any U.S. metro area. The 18.2% of San Jose households with annual incomes of at least $200,000 is much larger than the 5.3% of American households with similar incomes. Greater resources can provide for more leisure time and ultimately aid in leading happier, healthier lives.

In San Jose, 84.7% of adults exercise regularly, a much larger share than the 77.0% of adults who do nationwide. While wealth is no guarantee of long life, San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara has the lowest instance of premature death in the country. Just 3,770 years of life are lost due to premature death before the age of 75 per 100,000 metro area residents annually, much less than the corresponding 6,600 years of life lost nationally.

14. Provo-Orem, UT
> Poverty rate: 12.5%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 3.1%
> Adult obesity rate: 23.3%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: N/A

Only 7.2% of the Provo-Orem metro area’s population is older than 64, the smallest such share of any U.S. metro area. An especially young city, the Provo-Orem population is relatively healthy, and physical well-being can be a crucial component of personal happiness. Adults in the metro area are less likely to report physically or mentally unhealthy days than is typical among adults across the state and the country. Provo-Orem residents are also more likely to exhibit healthy behaviors than is typical across the country. Only 7% of metro area adults have a smoking habit, a far smaller share than the 17% national adult smoking rate. Additionally, nearly 85% of adults in Provo-Orem exercise regularly, a far greater share than the 77% of American adults.

13. Urban Honolulu, HI
> Poverty rate: 9.7%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 3.0%
> Adult obesity rate: 21.9%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: N/A

Although Urban Honolulu has the highest cost of living of any U.S. metro areas, residents report some of the lowest levels of financial stress. This may be due in part to high incomes in the area. The typical Urban Honolulu household makes $74,634 a year, the 11th highest median income nationwide.

Honolulu is the most urban part of Hawaii, and 94.6% of residents have access to a gym, park, or other opportunity for physical activity. Residents are certainly taking advantage of their proximity to such opportunities as 81.3% exercise regularly, a much larger share than the 77.0% of adults who do nationwide. Similarly, just 21.9% of residents are obese compared to a 27.0% national obesity rate. Overall, Urban Honolulu reports some of the best health outcomes in country. The average resident spends just 2.6 days in poor physical health and 2.7 days in poor mental health per month, nearly the least of any metro area.

12. Santa Maria-Santa Barbara, CA
> Poverty rate: 18.0%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.7%
> Adult obesity rate: 19.0%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 293.4

One of the happiest metro areas, Santa Maria-Santa Barbara is also one of the safest. There are 293.4 violent crimes per 100,000 residents annually, far fewer than the nationwide violent crime rate of 365.5 incidents per 100,000 Americans.

As in many of the country’s happiest metro areas, low violent crime rates accompany the area’s high incomes. A typical Santa Maria-Santa Barbara household earns $63,833 annually over $10,000 more than the typical American household. Higher incomes help offset the area’s high cost of real estate. Largely due to its location along the Pacific coast in southern California, rent prices in Santa Maria-Santa Barbara are roughly 65% higher than they are across the country on average.

11. McAllen-Edinburg-Mission, TX
> Poverty rate: 34.0%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 8.1%
> Adult obesity rate: 36.7%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 329.4

Located near the southern tip of Texas along the U.S.-Mexico border, the McAllen-Edinburg-Mission metro area does not fit the profile of many of the other happiest U.S. cities. The area’s poverty and unemployment rates are far higher than the corresponding state and national rates. Additionally, the typical metro area household earns nearly $20,000 less than the typical American household and the typical Texas households.

According to a report by Brookings, a think tank that conducts research on metropolitan policy, there has been an influx of low-income immigrants from Mexico to the McAllen-Edinburg-Mission suburbs in recent years. Though economic conditions in the area may lag behind much of the nation, they are likely a marked improvement for many area residents, contributing greatly to personal happiness.

10. San Luis Obispo-Paso Robles-Arroyo Grande, CA
> Poverty rate: 14.8%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 4.4%
> Adult obesity rate: 21.8%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 420.9

The San Luis Obispo metro area is one of many in California with some of the happiest Americans in the country. The area is fairly wealthy and has a strong educational system. The typical household makes $63,474 a year, about $10,000 more than the $53,657 national median household income. Also, 92.7% of students in the metro area finish high school within four years, a much larger share than the 82.0% national high school graduation rate.

Unlike many of the happiest metro areas, San Luis Obispo-Paso Robles-Arroyo Grande is fairly dangerous.There are 421 violent crimes per 100,000 residents reported annually, up significantly from the 267 incidents per 100,000 people violent crime rate in 2010. In fact, the metro area has one the the fastest growing crime rates nationwide. Nevertheless, area residents particularly satisfied with the strength of their community.

9. Anchorage, AK
> Poverty rate: 9.9%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 6.3%
> Adult obesity rate: 27.4%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 843.7

Incomes in the Anchorage metro area are among the highest in the country. The typical area household earns $75,682 annually, over $22,000 more than the typical American household. Financial stability is often critical to personal happiness and poverty is relatively scarce in Anchorage. Only 9.9% of Anchorage residents live in poverty, one of the lowest poverty rates of any U.S. city and a far smaller rate than the 15.5% national poverty rate.

Despite relative financial security, Anchorage is no especially safe. There are 844 violent crimes for every 100,000 residents annually, the second highest violent crime rate among all U.S. cities. High violent crime rates are uncharacteristic of the majority of country’s happiest cities.

8. Charlottesville, VA
> Poverty rate: 14.2%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 3.9%
> Adult obesity rate: 25.8%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 161.9

Home to the University of Virginia, Charlottesville is one of many college towns among the happiest metro areas in the country. About 40% of area adults have at least a bachelor’s degree, a larger share than the 30% of Americans nationwide with similar education.

The university has a major impact on Charlottesville’s economy. The university employs about one-fifth of the area’s total workforce and likely contributes to the area’s low unemployment. Charlottesville’s jobless rate of 3.9% is significantly lower than the 5.0% national unemployment rate.

7. Boulder, CO
> Poverty rate: 14.1%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 2.5%
> Adult obesity rate: 13.3%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 231.8

Like Colorado as a whole, Boulder residents report very high levels of physical well-being. Just 9.4% of Boulder adults do not exercise regularly, the smallest share of inactive residents nationwide. Likewise, Boulder’s 13.3% obesity rate is the lowest amongst U.S. metro areas and less than half the 27.0% national obesity rate. In addition to some of the healthiest habits, area residents also report some of the healthiest outcomes. Just 4,065 years of life per 100,000 people are lost due to premature death annually in Boulder, the second lowest incidence of premature death of any U.S. metro area.

Boulder is also home to some of the highest-earning, most well-educated Americans in the country. The 58.0% of adults with at least a bachelor’s degree is the highest such share nationwide, and the $71,540 a typical household earns annually is well above the $53,657 national median income. High educational attainment helps maintain a low unemployment rate in the metro area. At 2.5%, Boulder has the lowest unemployment rate nationwide.

6. Santa Cruz-Watsonville, CA
> Poverty rate: 16.8%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 9.0%
> Adult obesity rate: 20.6%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 418.0

An active lifestyle can contribute to physical well-being, a critical component of personal happiness. The Santa Cruz-Watsonville metro area is well equipped to support active lifestyles. More than 96% of metro area residents have adequate access to places such as parks and recreation centers, a far greater share than the 84% of Americans with such access.

As in many of the happiest U.S. cities, Santa Cruz-Watsonville residents earn more than most Americans. The typical area household earns $65,368 annually, over $11,000 more than the typical American household. Higher incomes in the area help offset the high cost of real estate. Largely due to its location along the Pacific coast in Central California, rent prices in Santa Cruz-Watsonville are roughly 71% higher than they are across the country on average.

5. Barnstable Town, MA
> Poverty rate: 7.7%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 7.5%
> Adult obesity rate: 19.7%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 425.8

Barnstable, Massachusetts, located on the popular summer destination Cape Cod, is one of the happiest metro areas in the United States. While area incomes are slightly lower than they are across the state as a whole, poverty is rare in Barnstable. Only 7.7% of the metro area population lives below the poverty line, the second lowest poverty rate of any U.S. city and well below the 11.6% statewide poverty rate.

Educated populations tend to report better personal well-being, and Barnstable is no exception. More than 44% of area adults have a bachelor’s degree, one of the highest college attainment rates of any U.S. city. Additionally, 96.4% of area adults have a high school diploma, the highest such share of any U.S. metro area.

4. Fort Collins, CO
> Poverty rate: 13.2%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 2.8%
> Adult obesity rate: 18.9%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 191.7

Fort Collins is located along the Colorado Front Range, a series of populous, geographically contiguous metro areas along Interstate 25 in the Rocky Mountains. Residents benefit from their proximity to other urban areas, as about half of the Fort Collins workforce commutes outside of the city to work. Perhaps as a result, just 2.8% of the workforce is unemployed, the fourth lowest unemployment rate in the country.

Fort Collins residents are also among the healthiest Americans nationwide. Just 12.1% of residents do not exercise regularly, and just 18.9% are obese, the fourth lowest inactivity and obesity rates of all U.S. metro areas. In addition to reporting satisfaction in their physical lives, less than one in 10 Fort Collins adults claim to be in fair or poor health — again the fourth smallest share of any metro area.

3. North Port-Sarasota-Bradenton, FL
> Poverty rate: 12.0%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 4.7%
> Adult obesity rate: 22.4%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 542.8

In North Port-Sarasota-Bradenton, 30.1% of residents are 65 or older, making it the sixth oldest community in the United States. The Sarasota metro area is one of many elderly communities in Florida among the happiest in the country. Although Sarasota’s $52,077 median household income is slightly lower than the national median, residents report the highest level of financial well-being in the country. This may be due in part to the large number of retirees with pension incomes and the relatively low cost of goods and services in the area.

As the baby boom generation ages and the national population that is 65 and older grows to record size, places such as the Sarasota metro area will likely experience further population expansion. Over the past five years, 77,820 more people moved to North Port-Sarasota-Bradenton than left, one of the largest net migrations of any metro area in the country.

2. Salinas, CA
> Poverty rate: 17.2%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 11.2%
> Adult obesity rate: 23.7%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 421.9

The cool climate and ocean breeze in Salinas help make residents among the happiest Americans in the country. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pacific Ocean air from Monterey Bay acts as a natural air conditioner to the Salinas area, cooling the environment and eradicating pollutants from the air. On an average day, there are 7.2 micrograms of particulate matter in the Salinas air per cubic meter, the second lowest level of pollution in the country, after Santa Rosa, California.

The unemployment rate in Salinas of 11.2% is the seventh highest of any metro area. While the Salinas economy is in worse shape than most of the happiest places in the country, area incomes are well distributed. The top quintile of earners make just 3.6 times the income of the bottom quintile, the seventh lowest income inequality ratio in the country. Despite other relatively poor socioeconomic measures — such as high poverty and low educational attainment — Salinas residents report some of the highest levels of well-being nationwide.

1. Naples-Immokalee-Marco Island, FL
> Poverty rate: 14.5%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 4.8%
> Adult obesity rate: 18.8%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 396.2

In the Naples-Immokalee-Marco Island area, 29.3% of the population is 65 and older, making it the seventh oldest community in the country. The Naples metro area is one of many elderly communities in Florida among the happiest nationwide. The area boasts a variety of beaches, golf courses, and resorts, which are enjoyed by the area’s relatively wealthy residents. Of all area households, 8.8% earn $200,000 or more annually, more than double the 4.0% share for Florida as a whole.

While Naples-Immokalee-Marco Island has some of the most expensive real estate in the country, Americans are still relocating to the metro area at a rapid pace. Over the past five years, net migration accounted for 34,572 new residents, one of the largest such growths of any metro area in the country.

The Most Miserable Cities in America

25. Memphis, TN-MS-AR
> Poverty rate: 20.3%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.6%
> Adult obesity rate: 34.4%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 1033.5

The level of crime in an area can have a significant impact on personal happiness. Memphis has the highest violent crime rate of any city in the country and some of the lowest reported levels of personal well-being. A uniquely dangerous place, people have been leaving Memphis in recent years. From April 2010 to July 2015, the city lost 20,849 residents due to migration alone. Along with a high prevalence of violent crime, economic conditions for those in the Memphis area are poor. Roughly one in five residents receive food stamps benefits, and nearly 31% of children in the metro area live below the poverty line.

24. Spartanburg, SC
> Poverty rate: 17.8%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.3%
> Adult obesity rate: 30.1%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 394.3

Financial insecurity often leads to stress, and Spartanburg residents are more likely to live in poverty than most Americans. Median household income in the area is approximately $10,500 less than it is across the country as a whole. The lower incomes are likely due in part to low educational attainment. Only 21.8% of adults in Spartanburg have a bachelor’s degree, a considerably smaller share than the 30.1% national college attainment rate.

Physical health is another important component of personal well-being, and many Spartanburg residents are not especially healthy. More than 18% of metro area adults report being in fair or poor health, considerably more than the corresponding 14% national rate.

23. Fort Wayne, IN
> Poverty rate: 14.6%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 4.7%
> Adult obesity rate: 28.8%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 229.7

Low real estate costs are indicative of less desirable areas, and rent prices in Fort Wayne are roughly 30% lower than they are across the country. Indeed, by several measures, life in the metro area is less than ideal. An active lifestyle may be more difficult to maintain in Fort Wayne, as only 78.5% of area residents have adequate access to places for physical activity such as parks or recreation centers. Across the country, 84.0% of Americans have access to such facilities. Perhaps as a result, adults in the area are less likely to exercise than adults in the country as a whole.

22. Cleveland-Elyria, OH
> Poverty rate: 15.9%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 4.9%
> Adult obesity rate: 28.5%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: N/A

Economic hardship is relatively common in Cleveland as 15.3% of metro area residents receive food stamps, a larger share than the 13.2% of Americans. Additionally, 24.2% of children in the area live below the poverty line, a larger share than the 21.7% of American children. A relatively unhappy place, people are leaving Cleveland faster than they are arriving. Over the past five years, the Cleveland metro area lost a net of 27,711 residents to migration alone, the third largest decline of any city in the country.

21. Evansville, IN-KY
> Poverty rate: 16.0%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 4.7%
> Adult obesity rate: 32.5%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 291.6

The level of air pollution in Evansville is the third worst of any U.S. metro area. Recently, two power plants in the area have agreed to reduce their air emissions and conform to new regulations from the Environmental Protection Agency aimed at curbing pollution. While these efforts may improve air quality in Evansville, the city’s long history of poor air quality has likely had an impact on the happiness of its residents.

The average Evansville resident reports feeling in poor mental and physical health for four days out of every month, significantly more than the 3.5 days spent in such unhealthy states by the average American.

20. Akron, OH
> Poverty rate: 13.3%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.9%
> Adult obesity rate: 29.0%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 275.1

A larger share of the Akron metro area’s workforce is in need of a job than is typical across the nation. The area’s unemployment rate of 5.9% is higher than the 5.0% national rate and and full percentage point higher than the statewide rate. Metro area residents also report some dangerous habits. Drunk driving is the underlying cause of 44.1% of all driving deaths in Akron, a larger share than in all but a handful of other U.S. metro areas.

As in many other cities that rank low on the well-being index, people are leaving Akron. The city lost 1,982 residents from April 2010 to July 2015 due solely to migration.

19. Springfield, MO
> Poverty rate: 18.8%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 3.9%
> Adult obesity rate: 29.7%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 535.9

Only 3.9% of Springfield’s workforce is in need a job, one of the lowest unemployment rates of all U.S. metro areas. Despite the favorable job market, area residents have relatively low incomes. The typical area household earns only $41,248 annually, considerably less than the $53,657 median household income across all U.S. metro areas. Financial instability can detract from personal happiness, and high poverty accompanies the lower area’s lower incomes. Nearly 19% of area residents live below the poverty line compared to the 15.5% state and national poverty rates.

18. Fayetteville, NC
> Poverty rate: 17.8%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 7.2%
> Adult obesity rate: 32.4%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 458.7

Physical well-being, for many, is a crucial component of personal happiness. In Fayetteville, one of the least happy cities in the country, 32.4% of adults are obese, far higher than the 27.0% national adult obesity rate. Obesity is linked to a number of chronic diseases and conditions, and area residents are more likely to die prematurely of preventable causes than people across the country as a whole.

In addition to some negative health indicators, Fayetteville’s residents are also suffering economically. More than 7% of the metro area workforce is out of a job, one of the highest unemployment rates in the country. Employment reduces risk of financial insecurity and can increase an individual’s sense of purpose.

17. Erie, PA
> Poverty rate: 16.3%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 6.1%
> Adult obesity rate: 30.7%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 226.7

Social isolation often hinders well-being, and is more likely among adults and children in single-parent households. In Erie, nearly 38.6% of children live in single parent households, a greater share than the 34.0% of children nationwide. Poor economic conditions also likely contribute to the lower personal well-being. The typical household in the area earns $45,560 annually, roughly $8,000 less than the corresponding state and national figures.

As is the case in many of the least happy cities in the country, people are leaving Erie faster than they are arriving. The city’s population dropped by more than 4,000 due to migration over the past five years.

16. Detroit-Warren-Dearborn, MI
> Poverty rate: 16.1%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.7%
> Adult obesity rate: 30.8%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 529.4

Detroit is one of the most economically depressed cities in the country. The metro area’s 5.7% unemployment rate is higher than both the statewide and national unemployment rates and likely contributes to lower overall well-being in the area.

A stagnant economy is not the only potential explanation for relative dissatisfaction among Detroit-Warren-Dearborn residents. With a rate of 529.4 violent crimes for every 100,000 residents, the area is considerably more dangerous than the nation as whole, where there are 365.5 violent crimes for every 100,000 residents a year. With a lagging economy and a high violent crime rate, people are leaving the metro area in droves. From April 2010 to July 2015, the metro area’s population declined by 47,620 due solely to migration, the second most precipitous decline due migration of any U.S. metro area.

15. Baton Rouge, LA
> Poverty rate: 17.0%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.3%
> Adult obesity rate: 33.9%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: N/A

Poor health is likely a major contributor to Baton Rouge area residents’ low overall level of well-being. The obesity rate among area adults of 33.9% is far higher than the 27.0% national obesity rate. Physical inactivity can raise the likelihood of obesity and contribute to worse overall physical and mental well-being. In Baton Rouge, 27.2% of metro area adults lead sedentary lifestyles, versus the 23% of adults who do nationwide. Due in part to unhealthy lifestyles, premature death is far more common in Baton Rouge than it is across the United States. Annually, 9,060 years of life are lost to preventable deaths for every 100,000 Baton Rouge residents. By contrast, the national premature death rate is 6,600 years for every 100,000 residents.

14. Flint, MI
> Poverty rate: 21.5%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.5%
> Adult obesity rate: 36.0%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 652.2

There are about 652 violent crimes per 100,000 people in Flint each year, one of the highest violent crime rates in the country. Area incomes are low, poverty is widespread, and 23.7% of all households rely on food stamps — the seventh highest rate of any metro area. Not surprisingly, Flint residents report feeling the most negatively towards their community.

As poor as they are, socioeconomic measures fail to adequately capture the daily hardships of Flint residents. Over the past few years, the Flint water supply has become heavily contaminated. The undrinkable water was the result of government mismanagement and neglect and is yet to be resolved. On January 16, President Barack Obama declared a state of emergency in response to the Flint water crisis. There remains no clear answer as to when Flint will have a reliable water source again.

13. Utica-Rome, NY
> Poverty rate: 17.5%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.9%
> Adult obesity rate: 30.3%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 259.2

Social isolation and financial insecurity, which are more likely among adults and children living in single-parent households, often work against personal well-being. In the Utica-Rome metro area, children are more likely to grow up in single parent households than children across the state and country as a whole. Additionally, 29.1% of area children live below the poverty line, a considerably larger share than the 22.6% child poverty rate across the state and the 21.7% national child poverty rate .

People are leaving many of the least happy cities, and the situation in Utica-Rome is no different. Over the past five years, 4,315 more people moved out of the metro area than moved in.

12. Indianapolis-Carmel-Anderson, IN
> Poverty rate: 14.8%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 4.6%
> Adult obesity rate: 31.1%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 646.3

Indiana’s violent crime rate of 365 incidents per 100,000 residents annually is inline with the national violent crime rate. In the Indianapolis-Carmel-Anderson metro area, however, violent crime is far more common with 646 reported incidents for every 100,000 people. Feeling safe is a major factor in happiness, and the area’s high violent crime rate likely plays a role in its relatively low ranking on the well-being index. Also, poor health among area adults likely detracts from overall well-being. Adults in the metro area are more likely to report being in fair or poor health than adults across the country.

11. Scranton–Wilkes-Barre–Hazleton, PA
> Poverty rate: 15.5%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 6.1%
> Adult obesity rate: 29.6%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 0.0

In the Scranton–Wilkes-Barre–Hazleton area, low incomes are prevalent. The typical household in the metro makes $45,257 a year, less than the $53,657 national median household income. Once a booming manufacturing town, Scranton and the surrounding region’s economy has suffered from the nationwide sector decline and the outsourcing of manufacturing jobs. While the national GDP per capita has grown from $47,985 to $52,526 from 2001 to 2014, a 9.5% increase, Scranton’s has grown from $34,330 to $36,310 per capita, a 5.8% increase.

The area’s 6.1% unemployment rate is higher than the 5.0% national jobless rate, and residents may be feeling the hard times. In addition to financial stress, residents report weak senses of purpose and community.

10. Rockford, IL
> Poverty rate: 16.3%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 8.5%
> Adult obesity rate: 31.9%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 664.8

There are 665 violent crimes for every 100,000 Rockford residents, far more than the national rate of 365.5 incidents per 100,000 people. Additionally, 8.5% of the metro area’s workforce is in need of a job, much higher than the 5.0% national unemployment rate. For area residents who have a job, salaries are relatively low. The typical Rockford household earns $48,385 annually, considerably less than $53,657 national median income.

Few cities have lost more people to migration alone in recent years than Rockford. From April 2010 to July 2015, 14,334 more people moved out of the metro area than moved in. High unemployment and violent crime rates as well as low wages all likely contribute to residents’ dissatisfaction in the area.

9. Toledo, OH
> Poverty rate: 18.8%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.8%
> Adult obesity rate: 32.0%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 559.4

Toledo lags behind much of the nation in several health and social measures. In the metro area, 32.0% of adults are obese, a full 5 percentage points higher than the national obesity rate. While some negative health measures can lower one’s well-being, so can the lack of a stable support network. In Toledo, 40.4% of children are raised in single-parent households, a far greater share than the corresponding 34.0% national share.

Like many cities with low reported collective well-being, people are leaving Toledo. Over the past five years, the city lost 13,542 residents to migration alone. Only a handful of other U.S. metro areas experienced a more precipitous loss to outward migration.

8. Worcester, MA-CT
> Poverty rate: 11.2%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.3%
> Adult obesity rate: 26.5%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 421.0

Worcester is the only metro area in New England to rank among the least happy in the country. The typical area household earns $64,556 annually, roughly $11,000 more than the national median. While area residents are relatively well off financially, the metro ranks low on Gallup’s financial well-being metric. The typical household across the state earns nearly $5,000 more than those in Worcester per year. This disparity could partially metro area residents’ relatively poor self-assessment of their financial well-being.

A high violent crime rate may further contribute to dissatisfaction among area residents. There are 421 violent crimes for every 100,000 people in the metro area annually, considerably more than the national rate of 366 reported incidents per 100,000 people.

7. Dayton, OH
> Poverty rate: 17.3%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.4%
> Adult obesity rate: 30.6%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 270.7

Poor economic conditions in Dayton likely detract from its residents’ sense of well-being. The area’s 17.3% poverty rate is higher than the 15.5% national poverty rate. The typical area household earns $46,697 annually, considerably less than the $53,657 the typical American household earns.

Poor economic conditions are likely contributing to the city’s dwindling population. In recent years, 5,898 more people have left than have moved to the city, making Dayton one of a minority of U.S. metro areas with a net migration loss.

6. Youngstown-Warren-Boardman, OH-PA
> Poverty rate: 17.2%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 8.5%
> Adult obesity rate: 32.1%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 243.3

The Youngstown metropolitan area is situated in Ohio’s Mahoning Valley, an area once known for its booming steel industry. As U.S. steel manufacturing lost ground to cheaper international steel imports in the 1970s and 1980s, local economies in Youngstown and other steel towns began to struggle. Residents today still lament Black Monday, when numerous steel mills in the Mahoning Valley announced their closing in 1977. The announcements spelled the downfall of the area’s economy and was followed by further closings .

Today, the typical Youngstown household earns $42,228 a year, about $11,000 less than the $53,657 national median household income. The metro area’s unemployment rate of 8.5% is significantly higher than the 5.0% national unemployment rate. The economy is starting to rebound, however. Since 2001, Youngstown’s GDP per capita grew by 12.8%, faster than the national growth rate of 9.5% over that period. Nevertheless, Youngstown has some of the lowest levels of happiness in the country, and since 2010 the city lost more than 8,000 residents due to migration.

5. Chico, CA
> Poverty rate: 22.3%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 7.3%
> Adult obesity rate: 25.2%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 302.8

Chico metro area residents report some of the highest levels of financial stress in the country. A typical area household earns $42,365 a year, about $11,000 less than the national median household income. The poverty rate in the metro area of 22.3% is also much higher than than the 15.5% national poverty rate. Feelings of financial insecurity may be intensified by the highly uneven distribution of wealth in the area. The top quintile of earners makes six times as much as the bottom quintile, one of the largest income gaps nationwide.

The average Chico resident reports feeling in poor mental and physical health for 4.2 days every month, significantly more time than the 3.5 days the average American reports. However,
82.4% of Chico adults lead active lifestyles, a larger share than the 77.0% of adults nationwide. Similarly, the area’s obesity rate of 25.2% is lower than the 27.0% national obesity rate.

4. Hickory-Lenoir-Morganton, NC
> Poverty rate: 18.9%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.6%
> Adult obesity rate: 31.2%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 193.7

Higher educational attainment often leads to higher incomes, better jobs, and a better overall personal well-being. In the Hickory-Lenoir-Morganton area, only 18.1% of adults have a bachelor’s degree, one of the lowest college attainment rates of any U.S. city. The area’s median household income of $41,106 is well below the national median. The area’s economy has been overly dependent on manufacturing, a sector that has been shedding jobs in recent decades. The area’s GDP per capita decreased by 12.0% from 2001 to 2014, one of the sharpest drops of any city in the country.

By many measures, a relatively large share of area residents are also in poor physical health. The obesity rate in the metro area of 31.2% is higher than the 27.0% national obesity rate. Area residents are also more likely to die prematurely due to preventable causes than adults across the country.

3. Huntington-Ashland, WV-KY-OH
> Poverty rate: 18.2%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 7.5%
> Adult obesity rate: 36.1%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 0.0

Residents of the Huntington-Ashland metro area report some of the lowest levels of personal well-being in the country. Unemployment is relatively common in the area as 7.5% of the workforce is in need of a job, considerably more than the 5.0% national unemployment rate. A lagging local economy likely contributes to lower incomes and high poverty. The typical metro area household earns only $40,830 annually, far less than the $53,657 national median household income. Furthermore, 18.2% of area residents live in poverty compared to a 15.5% national poverty rate. Financial instability greatly reduces one’s personal well-being.

2. Fort Smith, AR-OK
> Poverty rate: 23.4%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 5.1%
> Adult obesity rate: 36.5%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 424.7

Poor health outcomes and economic weakness likely lower overall feeling of well-being in the Fort Smith metro area. Of adults living in the area, 36.5% are obese, one of the highest obesity rates in the country. Obese individuals are at considerably greater risk of disease, which in turn can lead to lower quality of life and ultimately premature death. Each year, an estimated 9,551 years of potential life are lost due to preventable deaths, one of the worst premature death rates in the country. Financial distress is also common and affects individuals of all ages. More than one in every three children in the Fort Smith area live in poverty, for example, one of the highest child poverty rates in the nation.

The poor level of well-being in Fort Smith, as in many other areas on this list, makes the city less desirable both to prospective residents and people currently living there. Over the last five years, 3,309 more people left the area than arrived.

1. Charleston, WV
> Poverty rate: 17.9%
> 2016 unemployment rate: 6.9%
> Adult obesity rate: 32.3%
> Violent crimes per 100,000: 499.4

Charleston’s population reports the lowest level of well-being of any U.S. metro area. Unhealthy behavior, which increases the incidence of premature death, is likely a major contributor to the poor self-assessments in the area. The percentage of adults who smoke, for example, at 23.6%, is the eighth highest of all metro areas. The premature death rate, estimated at 10,325 years of life lost before age 75 per 100,000 people annually, exceeds even that of West Virginia, which is the second highest of all states.

Financial distress likely feeds the low well-being that many Charleston residents report. The area’s poverty rate of 17.9% and jobless rate of 6.9% are each well above the national figures.

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